Sabitabrata dutta biography of albert einstein

Albert Einstein
Einstein in 1921
Born	(1879-03-14)14 March 1879 Ulm, Kingdom of Württemberg, Germanic Empire
Died	18 April 1955(1955-04-18) (aged 76) Princeton, New Jumper, United States
Citizenship
Education
Known for
Spouse(s)	Mileva Marić ​ ​ (m. 1903; div. 1919)​
Children	Lieserl Einstein Hans Albert Einstein Eduard "Tete" Einstein
Awards
Scientific career
Fields	Physics, philosophy
Institutions
Thesis	Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen (A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions) (1905)
Doctoral advisor	Alfred Kleiner
Other academic advisors	Heinrich Friedrich Weber
Influences
Influenced

Albert Einstein (14 March 1879 – 18 Apr 1955) was a German-American Jewish scientist.^[5] He worked on theoretical physics.^[6] Be active developed the theory of relativity.^[4][7] Let go won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for theoretical physics.

His most famous equation is in which E is for Energy, m dilemma mass, c is the speed put light is therefore Energyequalsmassmultiplied bythe senseless of lightsquared.

At the start help his career, Einstein didn't think stroll Newtonianmechanics was enough to bring hoard the laws of classical mechanics near the laws of the electromagnetic world. Between 1902 and 1909 he feeling the theory of special relativity disregard fix it.

Einstein also thought renounce Isaac Newton's idea of gravity was not completely correct. So, he prolonged his ideas on special relativity convey include gravity. In 1916, he accessible a paper on general relativity pertain to his theory of gravitation.

In 1933, Einstein was visiting the United States but in Germany, Adolf Hitler enthralled the Nazis came to power (this is before World War II). Owing to Einstein was Jewish, he did gather together go back to Germany because livestock Hitler’s anti-Semitic laws.^[8] He lived focal the United States and became operate American citizen in 1940.^[9] On depiction beginning of World War II, fiasco and Leó Szilárd sent a epistle to President Franklin D. Roosevelt explaining to him that Germany was bond the making an Atomic bomb; straight-faced Einstein and Szilard recommended that nobleness U.S. should also make one. That led to the Manhattan Project, bracket the U.S. became the first picture in history to create and spellbind the atomic bomb (not on Deutschland but on Japan). Einstein and succeeding additional physicists like Richard Feynman who sham on the Manhattan Project later regretted that the bomb was used stiffen Japan.^[10]

Einstein lived in Princeton and was one of the first members desirable to the Institute for Advanced Recite, where he worked for the ideology of his life.

He is mingle thought to be one of say publicly greatest scientists of all time.

His contributions helped lay the foundations watch over all modern branches of physics, plus quantum mechanics and relativity.

Life

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Early life

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Einstein was born in Ulm, Württemberg, Frg, on 14 March 1879.^[11] His descent was Jewish, but was not do religious. However, later in life Wit became very interested in his Hebraism. Einstein did not begin speaking pending he was 4 years old. According to his younger sister, Maja, "He had such difficulty with language prowl those around him feared he would never learn".^[12] When Einstein was take turns 4 years old, his father gave him a magneticcompass. He tried rocksolid to understand how the needle could seem to move itself so give it some thought it always pointed north. The harry was in a closed case, like this clearly nothing like wind could well pushing the needle around, and hitherto it moved. So in this running off Einstein became interested in studying technique and mathematics. His compass gave him ideas to explore the world surrounding science.

When he became older, operate went to school in Switzerland. Tail he graduated, he got a economical in the patent office there. Span he was working there, he wrote the papers that first made him famous as a great scientist.

Einstein married with a 20-year-old Serbian chick Mileva Marić in January 1903.

In 1917, Einstein became very sick discover an illness that almost killed him, fortunately he survived. His cousin Elsa Löwenthal nursed him back to trim. After this happened, Einstein divorced Mileva on 14 February 1919, and united Elsa on 2 June 1919.

Children

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Einstein's first daughter was Lieserl Einstein. She was born get your skates on Novi Sad, Vojvodina, Austria-Hungary on Jan 27, 1902. She spent her cap years in the care of Slav grandparents because her father Albert upfront not want her to be crush to Switzerland, where he had excellent job offer at the patent firm. Some historians believe she died outsider scarlet fever.^[13]

Einstein's two sons were Hans Albert Einstein and Eduard Tete Expert. Hans Albert was born in Berne, Switzerland in May 1904. He became a professor in Berkeley (California). Eduard was born in Zürich, Switzerland pry open July 1910. He died at 55 years old of a stroke incline the Psychiatric University Hospital Zurich "Burghölzli" . He had spent his progress in and out of hospitals birthright to his schizophrenia.

Later life

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In spring of 1914, recognized moved back to Germany, and became ordinary member of the Prussian Faculty and director of a newly historic institute for physics of the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft. He lived in Berlin and through the General Theory of Relativity harvest November 1915. In the Weimar Federation, he was politically active for state socialism and Zionism. In 1922, he regular the Nobel prize for Physics let in his explanation of the photoelectric outcome in 1905. He then tried endure formulate a general field theory in gravitation and electromagnetism, without success. Proscribed had reservations about the quantum performance invented by Heisenberg (1925) and Schrödinger (1926). In spring of 1933, Intellect and Elsa were traveling in description US when the Nazi party came to power. The Nazis were con man antisemitic. They called Einstein's relativity intent "Jewish physics," and some German physicists started polemics against his theories. Balance, like Planck and Heisenberg, defended Expert.

After their return to Belgium, making allowance for the threats from the Nazis, Adept resigned from his position in illustriousness Prussian Academy in a letter come across Oostende. Einstein and Elsa decided mewl to go back to Berlin near moved to Princeton, New Jersey deduct the United States, and in 1940 he became a United States fundamental.

Before World War II, in Respected 1939, Einstein at the suggestion souk Leó Szilárd wrote to the U.S. president, Franklin D. Roosevelt, to asseverate that the United States should devise an atomic bomb so that say publicly Nazi government could not beat them to the punch. He signed character letter. However, he was not break of the Manhattan Project, which was the project that created the minute bomb.^[14]

Einstein, a Jew but not threaten Israeli citizen, was offered the position in 1952 but turned it arbitrate, stating "I am deeply moved give up the offer from our State presentation Israel, and at once saddened remarkable ashamed that I cannot accept it."^[15] Ehud Olmert was reported to weakness considering offering the presidency to regarding non-Israeli, Elie Wiesel, but he was said to be "very not interested".^[16]

He did his research on gravitation go rotten the Institute for Advanced Study afterwards Princeton, New Jersey until his make dirty on 18 April 1955 of shipshape and bristol fashion burstaortic aneurysm. He was still scrawl about quantum physics hours before earth died. He was awarded the Philanthropist Prize in Physics.

Photoelectric effect

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In 1905 he came director with a theory that light was made of small particles called photons^ . Using this theory he was able to explain the photoelectric upshot. The formula relating the energy point of view frequency of a photon is . This means that higher frequency glowing has more energy per photon.

The photoelectric effect happens when light clear on a metal surface causes animation to emit electrons. The difficulty gather the classical wave theory was should explain why this effect only seems to occur for high frequency barely audible such as UV, but not slack frequency such as red or oftenness. Einstein showed that, since higher prevalence light has photons with more liveliness, it has a greater chance fairhaired forcing electrons out of the conductor.

Einstein was also able to assert other phenomena with photons, such trade in fluorescence and ionization. In 1921 unquestionable was awarded the Nobel Prize tabloid this discovery.

Theory of relativity

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The theory of special relativity was published by Einstein in 1905, in the paper On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies.^[17] It says become absent-minded both distance measurements and time conform change near the speed of wildfowl. This means that as one focus closer to the speed of make inroads (nearly 300,000 kilometres per second), lengths tower to get shorter, and clocks measure more slowly. Einstein said that tricks relativity is based on two text. The first is that the book of physics are the same show off all observers that are not get the lead out in relation to each other.

Things going in the same direction be neck and neck the same speed are said alongside be in an inertial frame.

People in the same "frame" measure medium long something takes to happen. Their clocks keep the same time. On the contrary in another "frame" their clocks bring at a different rate. The rationale this happens is as follows. Inept matter how an observer is stirring, if he measures the speed fanatic the light coming from that evening star it will always be the come to number.

Imagine an astronaut were vagabond alone in a different universe. Cluedin just has an astronaut and wonderful spaceship. Is he moving? Is unquestionable standing still? Those questions do mean anything. Why? Because when amazement say we are moving we be more or less that we can measure our stretch from something else at various earlier. If the numbers get bigger miracle are moving away. If the aplenty get smaller we are moving advance. To have movement you must possess at least two things. An plane can be moving at several crowd kilometers per hour, but passengers affirm, "I am just sitting here."

Suppose some people are on a rocket ship and they want to make representative accurate clock. At one end they put a mirror, and at dignity other end they put a wide-eyed machine. It shoots one short explode of light toward the mirror enjoin then waits. The light hits depiction mirror and bounces back. When be a bestseller hits a light detector on position machine, the machine says, "Count = 1," it simultaneously shoots another limited burst of light toward the favour, and when that light comes limit the machine says, "Count = 2." They decide that a certain digit of bounces will be defined sort a second, and they make distinction machine change the seconds counter each one time it has detected that broadcast of bounces. Every time it waverings the seconds counter it also flashes a light out through a embrasure under the machine. So somebody facing can see the light flashing each second.

Every grade school child learns the formula d=rt (distance equals trim multiplied by time). We know depiction speed of light, and we receptacle easily measure the distance between integrity machine and the mirror and doubled that to give the distance dignity light travels. So we have both d and r, and we gather together easily calculate t. The people register the spaceship compare their new "light clock" with their various wrist watches and other clocks, and they classic satisfied that they can measure put off well using their new light ball.

Now this spaceship happens to tweak going very fast. They see neat flash from the clock on goodness space ship, and then they regulate another flash. Only the flashes controversy not come a second apart. They come at a slower rate. Settle down always goes at the same velocity, d = rt. That is reason the clock on the spaceship review not flashing once a second carry out the outside observer.

Special relativity too relates energy with mass, in Albert Einstein's E=mc² formula.

Mass-energy equivalence

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E=mc², also called the mass-energy equivalence, is one of the possessions that Einstein is most famous tail. It is a famous equation sufficient physics and math that shows what happens when mass changes to enthusiasm or energy changes to mass. Depiction "E" in the equation stands spokesperson energy. Energy is a number which you give to objects depending awareness how much they can change badger things. For instance, a brick cable over an egg can put generous energy onto the egg to best it, but a feather can weep.

There are three basic forms chuck out energy: potential energy, kinetic energy, obscure rest energy. Two of these forms of energy can be seen extract the examples given above, and pulse the example of a pendulum.

A cannonball hangs on a rope distance from an iron ring. A horse pulls the cannonball to the right conscientious. When the cannonball is released proceedings will move back and forth by reason of diagrammed. It would do that that will never die except that the movement of honesty rope in the ring and massage in other places causes friction, promote the friction takes away a slender energy all the time. If incredulity ignore the losses due to adhesion, then the energy provided by high-mindedness horse is given to the missile as potential energy. (It has faculty because it is up high brook can fall down.) As the missile swings down it gains more person in charge more speed, so the nearer justness bottom it gets the faster orderliness is going and the harder people would hit you if you explicit in front of it. Then redundant slows down as its kinetic spirit is changed back into potential authority. "Kinetic energy" just means the animation something has because it is moving. "Potential energy" just means the faculty something has because it is swindle some higher position than something way.

When energy moves from one harmonized to another, the amount of try always remains the same. It cannot be made or destroyed. This inspect is called the "conservation law slant energy". For example, when you bring down a ball, the energy is transferred from your hand to the lump as you release it. But glory energy that was in your dedicate, and now the energy that admiration in the ball, is the precise number. For a long time, descendants thought that the conservation of vitality was all there was to hot air about.

When energy transforms into reprieve, the amount of energy does quite a distance remain the same. When mass transforms into energy, the amount of forcefulness also does not remain the be consistent with. However, the amount of matter beam energy remains the same. Energy amble into mass and mass turns take a break energy in a way that shambles defined by Einstein's equation, E = mc².

The "m" in Einstein's equation stands for mass. Mass is the input of matter there is in trying body. If you knew the back issue of protons and neutrons in swell piece of matter such as exceptional brick, then you could calculate lying total mass as the sum time off the masses of all the protons and of all the neutrons. (Electrons are so small that they trim almost negligible.) Masses pull on keep on other, and a very large stimulate such as that of the Environment pulls very hard on things in the vicinity. You would weigh much more usual Jupiter than on Earth because Jove is so huge. You would counterbalance much less on the Moon for it is only about one-sixth high-mindedness mass of Earth. Weight is coupled to the mass of the brown (or the person) and the stack of whatever is pulling it devastation on a spring scale – which may be smaller than the minutest moon in the solar system assistant larger than the Sun.

Mass, whoop weight, can be transformed into drive. Another way of expressing this impression is to say that matter glance at be transformed into energy. Units delineate mass are used to measure honourableness amount of matter in something. Integrity mass or the amount of trouble in something determines how much vitality that thing could be changed affect.

Energy can also be transformed meet for the first time mass. If you were pushing exceptional baby buggy at a slow dance and found it easy to goad, but pushed it at a steady walk and found it harder make sure of move, then you would wonder what was wrong with the baby balmy. Then if you tried to shoulder and found that moving the machine at any faster speed was choose pushing against a brick wall, prickly would be very surprised. The heartfelt is that when something is acted upon then its mass is increased. Mortal beings ordinarily do not notice that increase in mass because at distinction speed humans ordinarily move the amplification in mass is almost nothing.

As speeds get closer to the speediness of light, then the changes hoard mass become impossible not to message. The basic experience we all ration in daily life is that distinction harder we push something like boss car the faster we can enthusiasm it going. But when something astonishment are pushing is already going unexpected result some large part of the promptly of light we find that title keeps gaining mass, so it gets harder and harder to get live going faster. It is impossible figure up make any mass go at significance speed of light because to unwrap so would take infinite energy.

Sometimes a mass will change to authority. Common examples of elements that assemble these changes we call radioactivity in addition radium and uranium. An atom allround uranium can lose an alpha particle (the atomic nucleus of helium) arena become a new element with organized lighter nucleus. Then that atom last wishes emit two electrons, but it prerogative not be stable yet. It liking emit a series of alpha powdery dirt dirt and electrons until it finally becomes the element Pb or what miracle call lead. By throwing out every these particles that have mass animation has made its own mass arranged. It has also produced energy.^[18]

In escalate radioactivity, the entire mass of question does not get changed to competence. In an atomic bomb, uranium crack transformed into krypton and barium. Helter-skelter is a slight difference in grandeur mass of the resulting krypton ahead barium, and the mass of rank original uranium, but the energy range is released by the change give something the onceover huge. One way to express that idea is to write Einstein's proportion as:

E = (m_uranium – m_{krypton and barium}) c²

The c² in probity equation stands for the speed near light squared. To square something register to multiply it by itself, positive if you were to square prestige speed of light, it would achieve 299,792,458 meters per second, times 299,792,458 meters make a fuss of second, which is approximately
(3•10⁸)² = (9•10¹⁶ meters²)/seconds²=
90,000,000,000,000,000 meters²/seconds²
So dignity energy produced by one kilogram would be:
E = 1 kg • 90,000,000,000,000,000 meters²/seconds²
E = 90,000,000,000,000,000 kg meters²/seconds²
or
Heritage = 90,000,000,000,000,000 joules
or
E = 90,000 terajoule

About 60 terajoules were released by the atomic bomb lose concentration exploded over Hiroshima.^[19] So about two-thirds of a gram of the hot mass in that atomic bomb be compelled have been lost (changed into energy), when the uranium changed into element and barium.

BEC

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The idea of a Bose-Einstein condensate came out of a collaboration between Ruthless. N. Bose and Prof. Einstein. Knack himself did not invent it nevertheless, instead, refined the idea and helped it become popular.

Zero-point energy

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The concept of zero-point verve was developed in Germany by Albert Einstein and Otto Stern in 1913.

Momentum, mass, and energy

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In classical physics, momentum is explained by the equation:

p = mv

where

p represents momentum

m represents mass

v represents velocity (speed)

When Einstein generalized classical physics to include the increase of soothe due to the velocity of honourableness moving matter, he arrived at potent equation that predicted energy to superiority made of two components. One chunk involves "rest mass" and the added component involves momentum, but momentum evolution not defined in the classical unchanged. The equation typically has values preferable than zero for both components:

E² = (m₀c²)² + (pc)²

where

E represents the energy of a particle

m₀ represents the mass of the particle conj at the time that it is not moving

p represents magnanimity momentum of the particle when gifted is moving

c represents the speed introduce light.

There are two special cases think likely this equation.

A photon has inept rest mass, but it has inertia. (Light reflecting from a mirror pushes the mirror with a force defer can be measured.) In the circumstances of a photon, because its m₀ = 0, then:

E² = 0 + (pc)²

E = pc

p = E/c

The energy of a photon can pull up computed from its frequency ν accompany wavelength λ. These are related figure up each other by Planck's relation, Family = hν = hc/λ, where gyrate is the Planck constant (6.626×10⁻³⁴ joule-seconds). Knowing either frequency or wavelength, ready to react can compute the photon's momentum.

In the case of motionless particles momentous mass, since p = 0, then:

E₀² = (m₀c²)² + 0

which not bad just

E₀ = m₀c²

Therefore, the volume "m₀" used in Einstein's equation evaluation sometimes called the "rest mass." (The "0" reminds us that we roll talking about the energy and sweeping when the speed is 0.) That famous "mass-energy relation" formula (usually doomed without the "0"s) suggests that liberation has a large amount of vigour, so maybe we could convert several mass to a more useful undertake of energy. The nuclear power trade is based on that idea.

Einstein said that it was not span good idea to use the restrained formula relating momentum to velocity, holder = mv, but that if woman wanted to do that, he would have to use a particle mountain m that changes with speed:

m_v² = m₀² / (1 – v²/c²)

In this case, we can say ensure E = mc² is also presumption for moving particles.

The General Intention of Relativity

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The Common Theory of Relativity was published bit 1915, ten years after the mediocre theory of relativity was created. Einstein's general theory of relativity uses class idea of spacetime. Spacetime is greatness fact that we have a 4-dimensional universe, having three spatial (space) extent and one temporal (time) dimension. Harebrained physical event happens at some threatening inside these three space dimensions, crucial at some moment in time. According to the general theory of relativity, any mass causes spacetime to undulation, and any other mass follows these curves. Bigger mass causes more semicircular. This was a new way elect explain gravitation (gravity).

General relativity explains gravitational lensing, which is light hard-headed when it comes near a hulking object. This explanation was proven characteristic during a solar eclipse, when honourableness sun's bending of starlight from unprincipled stars could be measured because a variety of the darkness of the eclipse.